Chapter 1: Resources and Development

(i) (c) Over irrigation — it causes water-logging, raising salinity/alkalinity in Punjab. (ii) (d) Uttarakhand — terrace cultivation is practised in the hilly Himalayan state. (iii) (b) Maharashtra — black (regur) soil of the Deccan trap is found predominantly in Maharashtra.

Black soil is found in Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat (also Chhattisgarh, parts of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh — the Deccan trap region). The crop mainly grown in it is cotton (which is why it is also called ‘black cotton soil’); it also suits jowar and other crops as it retains moisture well.

The river deltas of the eastern coast (Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri) have alluvial soil. Three features: (i) it is made of varying proportions of sand, silt and clay deposited by rivers; (ii) it is very fertile, rich in potash, phosphoric acid and lime, ideal for paddy, wheat and sugarcane; (iii) it can be classified by age into old alluvium (bangar) with more kanker nodules and new alluvium (khadar) which is finer and more fertile.

In hilly areas: (i) contour ploughing — ploughing along the contour lines to slow the flow of water down the slope; (ii) terrace cultivation — cutting steps (terraces) on the slopes to restrict erosion (well developed in the western and central Himalayas); and (iii) strip cropping — leaving strips of grass to grow between crops to break the force of water and wind. Planting shelter belts of trees also helps.

India's land is used for forests; land not available for cultivation (barren/waste land and non-agricultural uses like roads, buildings, industry); other uncultivated land (permanent pastures, tree crops, culturable waste); fallow lands (current and other fallow); and the net sown area. Use is determined by physical factors (topography, climate, soil) and human factors (population, technology, culture). The land under forest has not increased much since 1960-61 (and is below the 33% target of the National Forest Policy, 1952) because of continuing pressure to expand agriculture, settlements, industry and mining, and because much of the ‘forest’ figure is land classified as forest rather than actually afforested.

Technical development gives us the tools and machines to access and extract resources that were earlier beyond reach (deeper mines, faster transport, intensive farming), while economic development raises incomes and demand, so people consume far more goods and energy. Together they accelerate the use of minerals, fuels, water and land — often indiscriminately — leading to depletion and ecological problems (global warming, pollution, land degradation). This is why sustainable development and resource planning are essential.

(i) It shows that the mere availability of resources does not ensure development — resources contribute only with corresponding technology and institutional change. (ii) Technology, the quality of human resources, and historical experience (the text also stresses institutional change). (iii) Colonisers used their higher level of technology to exploit the rich resources of colonies and establish supremacy — rich resources were the main attraction for foreign invaders.

(i) Arid soil (red-to-brown, sandy, saline). (ii) The dry climate and high evaporation leave it low in humus and moisture, and a kankar (calcium) layer below restricts the infiltration of water. (iii) Proper irrigation (the canal) supplied water and leached salts, so (as in western Rajasthan) the soil became cultivable.

(i) The Brundtland Commission Report, 1987 (book: Our Common Future). (ii) Earlier: the Club of Rome (1968) or Schumacher's Small is Beautiful (1974); later: the Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit (1992) with Agenda 21. (iii) Gandhiji's ‘There is enough for everybody's need and not for anybody's greed’ captures sustainability — resources suffice for genuine needs but not for limitless greed, so they must be used without depleting them for the future.

(a) Both true and R explains A. Because alluvial soil is so fertile (rich in potash, phosphoric acid and lime), the regions it covers are intensively cultivated and densely populated.

(d) A is false, R is true. Over-irrigation does not always help — in Punjab, Haryana and western UP it causes water-logging, salinity and alkalinity (land degradation), so A is false while R correctly states its harmful effect.

(d) A is false, R is true. Soil forms extremely slowly (millions of years for a few cm), so treating it as quickly renewable is wrong — A is false and R gives the correct fact.

India has enormous diversity in resources — some regions are rich in minerals (Jharkhand), water (Arunachal) or solar/wind energy (Rajasthan) while others are deficient — so planning is needed for balanced, judicious use. The three stages are: (1) identification and inventory of resources across regions (surveying, mapping, qualitative/quantitative estimation); (2) evolving a planning structure with appropriate technology, skill and institutional set-up to implement development plans; and (3) matching resource-development plans with overall national development plans. India has pursued this since the First Five Year Plan. It prevents over-exploitation, reduces regional imbalance, and supports sustainable development.

Gully formation (gully erosion): practise terrace cultivation and contour ploughing — steps and contour furrows slow the running water so it cannot cut deep channels. Loss of top soil after rain (sheet erosion): contour ploughing/terracing again, plus maintaining vegetation cover, so water does not sweep the top soil down the slope. Loose soil blown away (wind erosion): plant shelter belts (rows of trees) and use strip cropping (strips of grass between crops) to break the force of the wind. Each method targets the specific agent of erosion — water or wind — restoring the balance between soil formation and erosion.